4 Things I Like About Yew

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Scraggly, moss-covered branches

In among the majestic Douglas-fir and Western Hemlock, the moss covered Big Leaf Maple, and the ever-present sword ferns, there lives a scruffy looking tree that is reminiscent of something you would find in a Dr Suess story. The shredded bark, the purplish trunk, and the sparse needles on scraggly, moss-covered branches all indicate you have just happened upon one of the best trees in the forest - The Pacific Yew (Taxus brevifolia)!

There are many interesting things about the Pacific Yew. Read on for four of my favorites:

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1. yew don’t look so good

It’s true. Yew are not the most attractive tree in the forest. The shaggy bark and meager supply of needles give the inaccurate impression of a sickly tree.

Some identifying features of the Pacific Yew are:

• Relatively short tree

Pacific Yew are a relatively short tree in comparison to other conifers, topping out at around 50ft. It is a shade-tolerant understory species that thrives in wet climates.

• Needles

The needles are short. In fact, the latin name brevifolia means “short leaved”. The flat needles grow in opposite rows. Look at the underside of the needles to see the lighter shade of green than the darker topside.

• bark

The messy look can be largely attributed to the shredded, purply-brown, paper like bark. In contrast with the thick bark of the fire-resistant Douglas-fir, the thin, papery bark of the Pacific Yew makes the tree particularly susceptible to heat damage. You are not likely to see these trees in areas prone to wildfires!

purplish trunk

Shredded, papery bark

• seeds or cones?

Pacific Yew are dioecious, meaning there are male trees and female trees. Most trees have the full assortment of reproductive equipment and therefore serve both roles. Pacific yew are among those who either have seeds (female) or they have cones (male).

• Seeds:

Photo credit: Jason Hollinger - Pacific Yew, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9693284

The bright red berries are a curious and unique feature to see on a conifer. Generally speaking, deciduous trees have fruit; conifers have cones. But as we all know, nature is full of exceptions, oddities, and anomalies. Exhibit A: the Pacific Yew!

The seeds produced are encased by a red, fleshy cup called arils. Arils look like berries but are actually a modified seed cone. Though they look invitingly tasty, don’t eat them as they are toxic to humans! Birds are unaffected by the toxins and are able to enjoy these tasty treats and disperse the seeds.

• Pollen Cones:

Photo credit: Ken Denniston

Conifers have pollen cones and seed cones. As mentioned above, the Yew’s seed cones are cleverly disquised as berries. Pollen cones do not grow on the same trees as the seed cones, or arils. Pollen released from the pollen cones are dispersed by the wind to fertilize the seeds. Reproduction by seed undergoes the following cycle:

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2. yew are special

Humans have had a varied opinion of the value of the Pacific Yew in terms of uses. On the one hand, the wood is not valued for firewood or timber but it’s strong yet flexible wood is ideal for making long bows, oars, furniture, fence posts, and tools. In fact, the wood is so hard and dense that yew wedges are used to split other wood!

On the other hand, the tree has a darker side. Every part from its bark to its needles is poisonous! Some darker uses capitalize on the Pacific Yew’s toxicity. In her book, Wicked Plants: The Weed that killed Lincoln’s Mother and Other Botanical Atrocities, author Amy Stewart writes of suicide and poisoning enemies by offering drinks from cups made of yew. It is this toxicity, however, that has both given the tree its bad reputation but also its most valued human use: medicine.

The chemicals behind the trees toxicity is taxine and taxane. Scientists have discovered that taxanes contain paclitaxel, and that paclitaxel disrupts mitosis when injected into an animal. Why is this important? Simply stated, paclitaxel is an antitumor agent in the fight against cancer!

And the harvesting began.

Not an uncommon story - in the excitement to develop a cure for cancer, the yew was in danger of extinction. Scientists, the medical community, and the environmentally conscious all pushed and pulled in their various goals until the partially synthetic Taxol was produced. Studies still continue but taxol has become an accepted and common chemotherapy treatment for breast and ovarian cancers and, because it is partially synthetic, the Yew as a source of this medicine are no longer threatened.

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3. yew look stressed

A tree’s typical response to stress is to “cone out”, which means produce a bumper crop of cones as a way of ensuring the next generation will live on. So dramatic!

The Pacific Yew simply says, “I got this” and sends out new shoots.

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4. where in the world are yew?

Yew Are Here

Taxus brevifolia enjoy cool, rainy, temperate forests. Silver Falls is in a cool, rainy, temperate rainforest! Not surprisingly, they are happily part of our conifer family here, as well as in the whole of the Pacific Northwest.

Pacific yews tend to lead a fairly solitary life. You are not likely to find significant stands of yew trees growing together. Rather, they prefer to quietly grow distant from other yews in the understory shade of the Doug-fir and Western Hemlock.

Distribution of Taxus brevifolia (credit: USGS)

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Sources and Additional Resources:

•  Abal M, Andreu JM, Barasoain I. Taxanes: microtubule and centrosome targets, and cell cycle dependent mechanisms of action, current cancer drug targets. 03 Jun 2003. [Internet] [accessed Jan 25 2017]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12769688

• Bryan J. 2011. How bark from the Pacific yew tree improved the treatment of breast cancer. Pharmaceutical Journal. Sep 21 2011. [Internet] [accessed 2017 Jan 25]. Available from: http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/news/how-bark-from-the-pacific-yew-tree-improved-the-treatment-of-breast-cancer/11084729.article

• Rao KV, Juchum J. 1995. A new large-scale process for taxol and related taxanes from Taxus brevifolia. Pharm. Research [Internet]. [cited Jan 23 2017]; 12(7). Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1016206314225

• Somjaipeng S, Medina A, Magan N. 2016. Environmental stress and elicitors enhance taxol production by endophytic strains of Paraconiothyrium variabile and Epicoccum nigrum.  ScienceDirect [internet] [cited Mar 3 2017].  Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com.evergreen.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0141022916300746

• Stewart A. 2009. Wicked Plants: The Weed that Killed Lincoln’s Mother and Other Botanical Atrocities. Chapel Hill (NC): Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill.

• Sun Z-H, Yin S. 2015. Isolation and cytotoxicity evaluation of taxanes from the barks of Taxus wallichiana var. mairei. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters.  ScienceDirect [Internet]. [cited Mar 6 2017]. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com.evergreen.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0960894X15000761

• http://nwconifers.blogspot.com/2015/07/focus-on-pacific-yew.html

• http://nwconifers.com/nwlo/yew.htm#

• https://sites.evergreen.edu/plantchemeco/taxus-brevifolia/

This Is Really Cool

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Don’t let freezing temperatures stop you from exploring the great outdoors! Not only is it less crowded on your favorite hiking trails, but there are cool things to see exclusive to this time of year. (pun intended)

Frozen Treats

You may have observed these interesting items on cold mornings. And you may have asked the three questions all humans seem to ask:

1. What is it?

2. What is it made from?

3. Can I eat it?

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Needle Ice

Sometimes called Ice Castles or Ice Ribbons

Needle Ice is formed when conditions are just right for some cool sciency processes to happen. Silty soil with sufficient moisture is the starting point.

When the temperature below ground is above freezing and the temperature above ground is below freezing, moisture is drawn to the surface through capillary action. Basically, capillary action is the movement of water without assistance. Think of what happens when you put water on the edge of a paper towel. The water “seeps” into the paper towel through capillary action. The properties responsible for this are cohesion (water is attracted to water) and adhesion (water is attracted to other substances).

Water in the soil that reaches the surface meets the below-freezing temperature and becomes ice. As more water pushes to the surfaces, the existing ice is pushed upward. The effect is tiny geometric needle-like columns of ice!

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Hair Ice

The second icy item pictured looks like it could be cotton candy, cobwebs, a tuft of fur, or a really ugly wig. It is none of those, but rather it is a quirky thing nature does when freezing temperatures, dead wood, and a certain kind of fungus are in the same place at the same time.

Exidiopsis effusa is found on dead wood

Similar to Needle Ice, moisture and temperature conditions and scientific processes result in unique ice formations. With Hair Ice, however, the process happens on wood colonized with fungus Exidiopsis effusa and produces a different appearance.

Moisture drawn to the surface of the wood through capillary action freezes when it comes in contact with the colder air temperature. When no fungus is present, the ice simply forms a crust over the branch. But fungus has a recrystallisation inhibitor (as discovered by scientist D. Hofmann; Evidence for biological shaping of hair ice. Biogeosciences, 2015) that change the production of ice crystals to ice filaments.

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A familiar sight, especially this time of year. Large black birds in fields, in trees, picking at road kill on the highway, watching us from the rooftops. Sometimes solitary, sometimes in large noisy gangs. Like a few other creatures in our forest at Silver Falls, these black birds have the unfortunate reputation of being associated with omens, death, and all things creepy. We even refer to a group of crows as a “murder”! Or do we? More on that later.

Let’s take a moment, however, to separate the science from the cultural depictions and hopefully in the process, inspire admiration for this family of rather remarkable birds!

A Case of Mistaken Identity

A common mistake is confusing a raven from a crow. They are indeed two different species, although both are in the Corvidae family along with Steller’s jays, grey jays, and magpies. Both the raven and the crow are completely black, down to their beaks, feet, and even eyeballs. However, a few key differences can be helpful in identifying which is which.

Photo credit: Phyllis Pietz

American Crow

Corvus brachyrhynchos

Photo credit: Peter Wallack; Wikimedia

Common Raven

Corvus corax

Size:

Ravens are much larger than crows. They are roughly the size of a red-tailed hawk. Interestingly, 97% of conflict between ravens and crows is instigated by crows. Though smaller, crows will use mob tactics to harass the larger ravens.

Silhouette:

• Raven’s beaks are large and curvy in comparison to a crow’s.

• Raven’s neck feathers, called hackles, are shaggier. Neck feathers are an excellent communication tool! Fluffed hackles display social dominance.

• Rictal bristles (basically the avian version of the mustache) extend half way down the raven’s beak. Crows have rictal bristles as well, but they are considerably shorter. Scientists think these whiskers aid the bird in navigation, foraging, and in avoiding collisions. No studies indicate anything about a possible Tom Selleck effect with the lady ravens!

In Flight:

• The middle tail feathers on a raven are longer that the others, creating a wedge-shape in flight. The even lengths on a crow’s tail feathers make a fan-shape. (see photos below)

• The raven is an acrobatic flier, soaring and doing spins and somersaults. When they do flap, their wings make swooshing sounds in contrast to the relatively quieter wing flaps of the crow.

Which is the raven and which is the crow in the photos below?

Photo credit: Joe Bartok (CC by NC)

Photo credit: Edward Rooks (CC by NC)

Social Behavior:

Ravens are mostly seen solitary or in pairs. They are not a social bird, unlike their crow cousins.

Vocalizations include croaks and screams in contrast with the caw and purr of the crow.

Ravens are not as likely to be seen in urban areas, whereas crows have thrived from urbanization.

Crows have a very complex social structure. Unlike most bird species, juveniles are not booted from the nest but will remain with their parents for years to come. Family groups can be up to 15 members and occasionally include “adopted” juveniles.

In the fall, gangs of new fledglings and yearlings will gather and baby crows may be heard practicing vocalizations.

“The Compaynys of Beestys and Fowlys”, The Book of Albans, 1486

Collective Nouns: a matter of opinion:

There are many names that refer to groups of animals:

• A pod of whales

• A parliament of owls

• A gaggle of geese

Crows have been given the unfortunate moniker of a “murder of crows”, likely at least partly due to their widespread association with death. They are, after all, carrion birds.

As it turns out, biologists and the scientific community largely do not subscribe to this system of names. A little digging reveals the origins of collective nouns to be from 15th century hunting terminology as described in The Book of Saint Albans, 1486. The intent was to efficiently describe “Fowlys and Beestys” and an assortment of other groups (princes, wives, doctors for example) but now, over 500 years later, many consider these terms charming and entertaining, while others claim them to be “antiquated and absurd”. The decision is your to make.

The Einsteins of the Bird Community:

Photo credit: Phyllis Pietz, Silver Falls State Park

Corvids as a group are among the most intelligent species on the planet. There are numerous studies of these fascinating birds that have revealed cognitive abilities that go far beyond those of most all other creatures. Notably, these birds are curious an playful and exhibit flexible behavior that extends beyond instinctual responses.

Nature may have cleverly equipped those woodpeckers with long, barbed tongues to snatch those juicy grubs out of the hole in the tree but gave the corvids problem-solving brains instead. The result: crows are commonly known to fashion hooks out of twigs or wire to extract insects from inside a tree!

Amazingly, ravens and crows have facial recognition. Not only that, but they also recognize individuals as “friend” or “threat”. Your neighborhood crows know who you are, who your neighbors are, who is naughty and who is nice! A well-known study in Seattle illustrates the extent to which crows learn and remember:

Photo credit: Phyllis Pietz; Silver Falls State Park

Students with full face masks trapped, banded, and later released several crows around campus. The crows were not injured but an unpleasant and frightening experience for the crows all the same. Grudges were held. When those same students later returned without masks or with different masks, they were ignored by the crows. However, anyone wearing the same masks as the trappers were harassed and dive-bombed by gangs of crows - even by crows that had not been trapped!

“Teach your children well” is apparently the crow motto. Ten years after the trapping incident, after the original trapped crows have died, subsequent generations of the crows of University of Seattle have been taught to recognize and remember “that villain". Anyone wearing that particular mask continues to be mobbed and harassed.

To emphasize that the achievement here is not about holding grudges but about the extraordinary learning, memory, and ability to pass memories on to future generations, studies also show the recognition of kind individuals. Helpful people and those who show kindness or offer treats to crows are frequently brought gifts. If a shiny object shows up on your roof or in your yard, chances are you’ve been marked as one of the good guys by your local gang of crows!

Sources and for additional information:

• Gifts of the Crow: How Perception, Emotion, and Thought Allow Smart Birds to Behave Like Humans; Marzluff, John and Angell, Tony, 2012

• https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Raven/

• https://www.audubon.org/magazine/march-april-2016/meet-bird-brainiacs-american-crow (Kat McGowan author)

• BBC article: Crows could be the smartest animal other than primates By Chris Baraniuk 11th December 2019

• https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ Anatomy of avian rictal bristles in Caprimulgiformes reveals reduced tactile function in open-habitat, partially diurnal foraging species; March 23, 2020

The Lumpers and the Splitters

By Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Once upon a time there was a woodpecker named the yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius). Sporting red, black, and white plumage and, you guess it, a yellow tint to the belly, this woodpecker was widely distributed throughout North America. Or so we thought…

There was known to be a woodpecker subspecies with a red throat that lived out west that filled the same ecological role as their eastern counterparts. Scientists generally agreed to “lump” these into the same taxonomy classification as the yellow-bellied sapsuckers.

“Hey wait!”, cried the Splitters. They argued for a re-classification to split the birds into two separate species based on significant differences - a red throat for one.

Red-breasted sapsucker

Sphyrapicus ruber

The conflict waged on.

In 1983 the Lumpers conceded and the Splitters were declared the winner! Sphyrapicus ruber are now recognized as the red-breasted sapsucker.

Emboldened by their success, the Splitters looked with a critical eye to the woodpeckers in the Rocky Mountain/Great Basin region and noticed that the red plumage did not extend as far down to the bird’s breast. Another split resulted in the classification of the red-naped sapsucker (Sphyrapicus nuchalis).

YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT

This is partly the case with sapsuckers. Sphyrapicus means sap-sucker and indeed, tree sap is a main component of the red-breasted sapsuckers’ diet. Formica ants, beetles, and other insects, fruit and seeds, and even cambium round out the diet. A study showed 68% of the red-breasted sapsucker diet to be insects (Beal, 1911). One source suggested woodpeckers have been known to dip their captured insects in sap wells before consuming!! (?)

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THE RIGHT TOOL FOR THE JOB

My favorite topic - adaptations! From head to toe, woodpeckers are equipped with some pretty cool adaptations that allow them to succeed. Read on to learn a little bit about 4 of my favorite woodpecker adaptations!

1. CHISELED BEAK: THE WOODPECKER MULTI-TOOL

Essential for getting food, home-building, and even communication, this specialized beak is the signature feature of the woodpecker:

Sap Wells:

Look closely at the trees on your next visit to the forest. See any with patterns of small holes? These are sap wells and are the work of careful planning! Neat rows of wells are drilled into the xylem layer of the tree (where the sap is) in order to divert the flow of some sap to the outside of the tree for easy access. Once the flow has been started, the wells are frequently revisited to feed.

Rufus hummingbird

Rufus hummingbirds are ecologically linked to these woodpeckers. They cleverly befriend the red-breasted sapsucker in order to enjoy the flowing sap as well! This is especially important to migrating hummingbirds looking for food before nectar-rich flowers have bloomed.

Knock on Wood:

An equally important use of that chiseled beak is communication! Drumming is the iconic woodpecker behavior of rapidly pecking on an object in patterns that communicate messages such as declarations of territory or mating interest. Perhaps some of you have experienced this on your metal chimney caps or lampposts.

At a mere 18 drums per second, the red-breasted sapsucker has a relatively slow drum in the world of woodpeckers. Before scoffing at these little guys for not being faster, try this little experiment: count how many seconds it takes to tap your finger on a surface 18 times.

Extreme Home Makeover: Dead Tree Edition

The third use of the chiseled beak is construction tool. Dead standing trees (snags) are prime real estate to a woodpecker! And woodpeckers fill an essential ecological role as Excavators of the Forest by creating nest cavities in these dead trees.

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2. zygodactyl feet

pronounciation [zy-go-DAC-til] - one of the most fun words in nature!

These x-shaped feet with two forward facing toes and two backward facing toes allow the red-breasted sapsucker to easily stand on a vertical tree while excavating their nest, slurping that sap, or accomplishing any other woodpecker tasks.

Stiff tail feather provide added support and leverage.

Note: Woodpeckers are not the only birds at Silver Falls with zygodactyl feet. Owl perch using a zygodactyl pose, though they are able to pivot one of their back toes forward for hunting purposes.

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3. Built-in safety equipment:

Sawdust flying everywhere! How safe can that be when the ‘drill’ used to create your nest cavity is on your face! Nature is smart though. Adaptations have evolved to protect those woodpecker eyeballs in the form of built-in goggles called nictitating membranes. These are basically a third eyelid that is translucent. Nictitating membranes are also found in several other Silver Falls’ residents including beavers, snakes, and owls.

Bonus safety gear: Nose feathers cover the nostrils to protect against inhalation of flying sawdust! (See photo above)

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4. Super tongue:

Woodpeckers have ridiculously long tongues. An ingenious design, this adaptation serves a dual purpose as both fishing line and bubble wrap.

Pictured here is a Pileated woodpecker; though all woodpeckers have long tongues

Photo Credit: Mark Averitt

“Tap-tap-tap”. “Tap-tap-tap”. You may have noticed a red-breasted sapsucker tapping sporadically on a dead tree. Much like tapping on a wall to locate a stud, the woodpecker uses the chiseled beak to locate nests full of juicy insects or larvae. Once found, the woodpecker drills into the tree to reach the nest and extends a disproportionately long tongue with stiff barb-like hairs on the end into the hole much like a fishing line with a hook!

Sapsuckers tongues can extend 3 times the beak length! Which of course begs the question, where do they store such a long tongue when not fishing for grubs?!

The answer: when not in use the tongue wraps around the brain to undoubtedly protect against what, at best, would be a constant headache from all the drilling and drumming all day!

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Distribution Map of the red-breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus rubus)

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Silver Falls is home to 5 species of woodpeckers:

• Red-breasted sapsucker

• Pileated woodpecker

• Northern flicker

• Hairy Woodpecker*

• Downey Woodpecker*

*Current Lumpers and Splitters are in discussions over whether Downey and Hairy woodpeckers are actually the same bird and therefore should be lumped into the same classification. Stay tuned for the ever-changing world of taxonomy!

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Want to know more about woodpeckers?

Check out these additional references/resources:

• Stephen Shunk (2016). Peterson Woodpeckers. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

• https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Red-breasted_Sapsucker

• https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/red-breasted-sapsucker

• https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rebsap/cur/introduction

• Beal, F.E.L. (1911). Food of the woodpeckers of the United States. US Department of Agriculture, Biological Survey Bulletin 37.

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

What makes Oregon so green? Our excellent recycle/reuse culture yes, but mostly from all the moss that covers nearly everything west of the Cascades! What makes this little plant unique? Does it really only grow on the north side of trees? Is Spanish Moss really moss? Read on for a brief exploration of the marvelous world of mosses.

The Wind Beneath My Seeds…(or, Spores)

Plant reproduction is a fascinating topic! With mammals it is a relatively straight forward process - follow the pheromones. Plants however are unable to move towards one another to exchange genetic material. Because of that they have developed some pretty ingenious methods for securing the next generation. The only tools needed: wind and water.

Photo credit: Wikicommons; Lordgrunt, 2008

If you are fortunate enough to happen upon a ripe clump of sporophytes(see photo), run your hand gently along the top and watch the satisfying tiny cloud of spore dust poof into the air! These newly released spores are now off on their adventure to find a gametophyte of their very own! (They grow up so fast)

Rain droplets carry the sperm from a male gametophyte spore to the egg of a female gametophyte spore and, voila!, a baby moss is born (let’s call him Brian the Brypohyte)!

The scientific explanation is illustrated below. Essentially, moss and other bryophytes spend the majority of their lives in the gametophyte stage. During the sporophyte stage, tiny stems called setae elevate the sporophyte capsules (where spores are produced) high in the air for more optimal dispersal.

Lifecycle of a moss: Wikipedia

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Bryophytes are epiphytes, which means they live quite happily on a host (tree, rock, soil, old cars, anything that sits still for long enough) without detriment to that host. There is no need to scrape moss off your favorite tree. Parasites such as mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum) will use roots to leach nutrients out of the host (a detriment indeed) whereas moss will absorb nutrients from the air around them. The host is merely a place to sit - like a park bench! Moss have no roots to absorb nutrients - they are cleverly equipped with root-like structures called rhizoids which they use to attach themselves to their host.

Note: Spanish Moss and lichens are also epiphytic but are not mosses. Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) is a plant in the pineapple family! (Every family has their special members, don’t they?!) Lichens are not even plants at all but instead are classified in the Fungal Kingdom.

Not Moss

Mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum)

Not Moss

Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides)

Not Moss

Oakmoss Lichen (Evernia prunastri)

Moss!

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Moss have tiny leaf-like structures that absorb nutrient-rich water and convert sunlight to energy through photosynthesis. Moss lacks vascular tubes (xylem) that other plants have to carry nutrients and, as a result, do not have the support to grow tall and erect. The result - emerald carpets of cushiony moss that characterizes the Pacific Northwest!

Contrary to the myth that moss grows only on the north side of trees, moss are well adapted to live almost anywhere. Some moss species grow in deserts, while others do well in the Arctic or in tropical or temperate forests. Species at Silver Falls do particularly well in shady, moist environments but it is ill-advised to rely on moss as a compass. Every direction at Silver Falls is shady and moist!

Looking for a free and safe activity? Take your family on a Spore-Releasing Safari. Search for mossy clumps on your next Silver Falls hike and keep a lookout for the friendly wave of the sporophytes swaying in the breeze. Gently brush your hands over them and watch the cloud of spore dust!

Further information:

• Living in the Land of Mosses, by Bruce McCune and Kristen Whitbeck

• OSU Pacific Northwest Moss Harvest

• What is a Moss

• Mosses, Lichens, and Ferns of Northwest North America (book); Dale Vitt, Janet Marsh, Robin Bovey; Lone Pine Publishing, 1988.

A Designed Historic Landscape: and the Buildings Within It!

by Carl Shepherd

The history of buildings, the materials which are used in their construction, and the specific types of material and methods in which they are put together, are all part of what makes those structures fascinating.

Silver Creek Falls is home to approximately 177 roofed structures, the majority of which are either of log construction, or made from rough-sawn lumber - most of which was harvested from the trees located within the park and cut with an onsite sawmill.

The process of building construction and materials used frequently starts with a design characteristic or style. Silver Creek Falls buildings which are located within the historic districts have been constructed in the Rustic Adirondack architecture style. The National Park Service (NPS) employed this style in the 1930’s and 1940’s during the park building era across the nation. This style uses local native materials that blend within the landscape. An obvious advantage is relatively easy access to building materials that does not require long distance transportation. Whole, split, or peeled logs were used to provide the rugged look and native stone used to build stone porches and the massive fireplaces and chimneys.

Silver Creek Falls buildings vary from basic sleeper cabins at the Y Camp (Camp Silver Creek) which are primarily made from peeled logs and hand split shakes, to the more detailed South Falls Lodge involving larger logs, basalt stone, wooden doors and windows - all showing more skilled and detailed craftsmanship.

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BUILDING WITH STICKS AND STONES

Preservation of historic buildings requires consideration of construction styles and techniques. A brief look of some of these techniques follows:

YMCA Staff Cabin

This is one of the more basic structures. These cabins were built using smaller logs, shakes, and rough-cut boards. The log members were not scribed to fit, but were simply laid one on top of another.

Interior view of ridge repair in staff cabin

Historic preservation seeks to retain as much of the original fabric of the building as possible. A lap joint technique is a simple joint used to repair log components in buildings and requires only the damaged wood to be replaced.

Close up view of repair on rafter tail

Almost invisible repair work indicates skilled craftsmanship

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South Falls Lodge

South Falls Lodge construction, on the other hand, was much more detailed with a combination of whole peeled logs, sawn timber, and stonework. Large sawn timber purlins and cross beams support the peeled log rafters and sheathing boards. Exposed whole peeled log framework and detailed log work above the windows adds to the grand lodge design.

Using a scribe to transfer the profile of one log onto another

In contrast with the simply design of the cabins, logs in the Lodge were scribed to fit tightly. Scribing is a technique used to shape the log to the exact mould of the adjoining log.

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Other construction material used was stone, specifically basalt. A thick bedrock of basalt covers a good portion of the Pacific Northwest from the Columbia River Basalt Flow episodes which occurred millions of years ago.

The use of basalt, even though located within the park, still requires huge amounts of energy to get it to the site and then shape it into a usable piece of material. Most of the work to shape the stone into building components was done by hand in the 1940’s when the South Falls Lodge was constructed.

Stones were split into basic sizes using drills, feathers, and wedges. Then further detailing was done with hand chisels and hammers. Needless to say this was very labor intensive.

Feathers (on the sides) of the wedge (center) are used to split large stone into workable pieces.

Drill marks from a star bit show where the original larger basalt stone was initially drilled and split.

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BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER

The use of these materials and tools requires skill and patience. Even more impressive is the practice of using log and stone together to create a structure that fits well together and is weather proof. This is where the scribe and getting two very different types of material to work together well becomes a learned skill. Note how the window trim was scribed to fit the profile of the basalt stone.

The final resting place! This is one of two grand fireplaces located within South Falls Lodge. Note the attention to detail in how closely the stones fit together. The final product of rustic construction style is a tribute to a group of guys trained to create a long-lasting example of craftsmanship.

Sources for further information:

• https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/mcclelland/mcclelland2d1.htm

• https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d//pubs/pdfpubs/pdf15232802/1523-2802_Dovetails+Broadaxes_Sec508_08-09-17_WEB_150dpi.pdf

Camassia

by Bill Stoddard

The First Nations have lived in Oregon for at least 15,000 years. One of their most important foods is camas. The camas is part of the Asparagus family, and there are two types found in the Willamette Valley. They are Common Camas (Camassia quamash) and Giant Camas (Camassia leicthlinii). Giant Camas is more prevalent and is preferred because of the size of the bulb, which can be up to 2 inches across. The color of the flower ranges from light blue to a dark blue that is almost purple.

Example of light blue camas bloom

Example of dark blue/indigo camas bloom

While camas can grow in almost any conditions they prefer moist soil and full sun. Camas blooms only once each year, in approximately April to May.

Every tribal band, group, or family had a traditional area where they harvested camas every year. I should also say that most of the Willamette Valley was much moister than it is now because of lack of flood control. As a result, camas was much more prevalent in the valley prior to settler’s arrival. While the camas bulbs were normally harvested in the fall, they were in fact available any time of the year when needed. The harvested area was broken up into about five or six sections that would be harvested over that number of years depending on the climate that year. The sections could be as large as an acre. Only the medium to large bulbs would be harvested and the rest replanted or left in the ground to grow. The camas plant was one of the very few plants that was actively cultivated by clearing weeds and overgrowth, tilling the soil, and fertilizing it through controlled burning. The seeds could be planted to expand the camas fields with the understanding that it takes at least three years for the seed to become a bulb and then several more years before the bulb is big enough to harvest. So, cultivation and harvesting of the camas is a long term program.

Common Camas

Camassia quamash

Giant or Great Camas

Camassia leicthlinii

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The reason camas is so important is because it is a high energy food that can be processed and stored for long periods of time. Every spring the people would go out to the camas fields and harvest a few bulbs for spring ceremonies. Also during this time they would check their fields for white blooms of the Meadow Death Camas. This had to be done every year during the blooming period. Once the blooms are gone there is no way to distinguish the difference between the bulbs of the meadow death camas versus the giant camas. It should be noted that the death camas is not related to the giant camas. it actually belongs to the Lily family. Eating a small portion of the death camas can cause excess salivation, vomiting, muscle weakness, and tremors. Consuming anything near 2% of the body weight can cause death.

Meadow Death Camas

Toxicoscordion venenosum

Once the camas bulbs are harvested in the fall, they are cooked in a pit for anywhere from 24 to 72 hours, depending on the projected use. The need for cooking for such a long period of time is because the bulb contains a chemical called inulin, which is undigestable in the human stomach. The cooking hydrolyzes inulin, converting the complex carbohydrate into simple ones (see footnote). The longer the bulbs are cooked, the more the fructose caramelizes until the bulbs turn black. After cooking for at least 24 hours the bulbs taste somewhat like a roasted pear or baked sweet potato, only sweeter. I should also mention that because of the inulin, eating too much camas, especially when undercooked, often will cause cases of excessive flatulence.

The pit oven is of a traditional style starting with a fire in a pit to create a bed of coals. The coals are then covered with stones. Once the stones are hot enough, they would be covered with large leaves such as skunk cabbage or maybe some cedar boughs for taste. Then a layer of the camas bulbs, more leaves, and more bulbs for several layers comprising sometimes of hundreds of pounds of bulbs! The pit is then covered with dirt and left to cook for the required minimum of 24 hours.

When the cooked camas bulbs are removed from the pit, they are processed in a couple different ways. They can be dried and pounded into powder for baking or as a thickening agent. They can also be mashed and formed into cakes and stored for later use or for trade. I myself have eaten it several different ways after pit cooking or cooking in the oven. I’ve mashed the bulbs and eaten them with butter and salt; cubed the bulbs and eaten them in a stew; or sliced the bulbs then pan fried them with a sprinkling of sea salt and lemon juice. The last method was my favorite one because I could vary the crispness of the slices.

Camas can be found in fields, along roadsides, in forest meadows, along creeks; many places. You might consider planting them in your own garden to expand the range of the camas again.

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FOOTNOTE: Peacock, Sandra. (2008). From complex to simple: Balsamroot, inulin, and the chemistry of traditional Interior Salish pit-cooking technology. Botany. 86. 116-128. 10.1139/B07-111.

Click here for fun recipes to try with camas bulbs!

Camp Silver Creek: An 80-year Tradition at Silver Falls

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Summers 1938-2019

Summer 2020

Children have been enjoying the summer camp tradition at Camp Silver Creek for over 80 years!

Many Silver Falls State Park visitors are unaware of this historic gem which resides within our 9000-acres.

WPA Promotional Poster, 1930’s

MAKING LEMONADE FROM LEMONS

Built by the Works Progress Administration as part of Roosevelt’s New Deal during the post-Depression reconstruction phase, Camp Silver Creek was one of the 46 Recreation Demonstration Areas (RDA’s) built in the 1930’s and 1940’s, and one of only two RDA’s on the west coast. Roosevelt’s administration was without question ingenious in regards to combating the Great Depression’s economic issues and unemployment with creative and successful solutions! Providing employment and valuable occupational skills to impoverished communities through federal relief programs like Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA); and promoting conservation of hundreds of thousands of forested lands through the National Park Service are but two feathers in Roosevelt’s cap!

I SPY WITH MY LITTLE EYE…

Fun details can be found in the stonework! Rumor has it the men who built these iconic structures across the nation added subtle touches as tokens for girlfriends back home. It has become a scavenger hunt to look for heart-shaped stones in Civilian Conservation Corps structures around the nation!

TRIVIA QUESTION: On which building at Silver Falls can this heart-shaped stone be found?

IF YOU BUILD IT, THEY WILL COME

Whereas the CCC brought boys from distant locations, the WPA utilized local skilled laborers. The local men began construction of the camp in 1934 under the direction of Superintendent Harry Buckley and by 1938 had completed all the administrative buildings and three cabin groups - all in the iconic NPS rustic architectural style. One additional cabin group (1939) and Cook’s Cabin (1947) were added to make up the complete camp. The entire facility was placed on the National Registry of Historic Places in 2002.

Camp Silver Creek has been administered by the Salem YMCA since the opening of the camp. For this reason, the facility is more commonly known as “The Y-Camp” to Park staff and locals.

NO GIRLS ALLOWED!

Or at least that was the futile attempt in the early days. Camp Silver Creek was originally a boys camp. Camp Smith Creek (current site of Silver Falls Conference Center) was built in the 1940’s as the girls camp.

“I can probably still find the trail we boys used to sneak over to visit the girls’ camp”

-remark from an older gentleman reminiscing about camp antics during a recent visit to South Falls Lodge.

The two camps were combined in the 1950’s, having given up the notion to keep boys and girls separated.

KING OF THE CAMP

Retired Park Ranger Brad (camp name B-Rad), one of my favorite rangers, was the Historic Preservation ranger responsible for maintaining the historic integrity and the functioning of the Y-Camp facilities for 13 years. Certainly no small task!

BUT WAIT! THERE’S MORE…

For more information about WPA, CCC, RDA, or the alphabet soup era in general, check out the following sources:

• http://www.ccclegacy.org/

• https://livingnewdeal.org/us/or/

• https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/unrau-williss/adhi4i.htm

A Pointed Article About Antlers and Horns

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Some call them horns. Some call them antlers. Some say it is a “po-tay-toe”, “po-tah-toe” situation. Some say it is a regional distinction. As it turns out, there is indeed a scientific difference. Starting with taxonomy, all animals belonging to the classification Suborder Ungalata, or hoofed mammals, have some type of head ornaments. Further down the taxonomy chain, however, Family classifications divide into either horned or antlered animals. Cervidae (deer, elk) fall into the antler category. Bovidae (antelope, buffalo, cattle) have horns.

Following is a brief look at some of the features of each:

OOPS, I THINK YOU DROPPED SOMETHING

Antlers are shed and regrow each year. As one of the fastest growing tissues, elk antlers can grow 1” per day and can weigh up to 40 pounds each! Shed season is dependent on the specie - deer around the first of the year; elk in Spring. Shed hunting is prohibited in some areas so check before you collect.

VELVETY SOFT

Antlers are covered with a vascularized fuzzy skin during the entirety of their growing season. When the bone “dies”, the velvet is then rubbed off, leaving behind a pair of shiny antlers that are apparently eye candy to the girls!

BOYS ONLY CLUB

Antlers are a male-only feature in the Cervidae family. A notable exception is the Caribou. Antlers serve the dual purpose of demonstrating health and dominance (the bigger - the better); and as a useful weapon to fight against competing males for the ladies’ attention.

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A PERMANENT FEATURE

Horns never stop growing. Unless broken off, an animal will have it’s horns it’s entire life. Horns are composed of keratin whereas antlers are bone.

The model in this photo is a Pronghorn Antelope and is an exception to the rule. Pronghorns will lose their horns annually unlike other horned animals. Fun Fact: True antelopes are Old World species (Africa, Eurasia) whereas this North American animal is not a true antelope but is referred to as such because of its similar appearance and similarities in an ecological role.

A FORK IN THE ROAD

Horns never branch. Those fabulous multi-pointed specimen are but a dream to the horned animals of the Bovidae family.

SILVER FALLS LOCALS

Silver Falls State Park and surrounding area is home to a healthy population of Black-tail deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) and also herds of the more elusive Roosevelt Elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti). Drive carefully: the deer think they own the place! (And actually, they do!)

BLACK-TAIL DEER TAXONOMY

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Artiodactyla

Suborder: Ungalata

Family: Cervidae

Genus: Odocoileus

Specie: hemionus

Subspecie: columbianus

ROOSEVELT ELK TAXONOMY

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Artiodactyla

Suborder: Ungalata

Family: Cervidae

Genus: Cervus

Specie: canadensis

Subspecie: roosevelti

By Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Nature is weird. Yes, we all know and love our “normal” critters that have logical anatomy and relatively predictable behavior patterns. I could write all day about lions and tigers and bears (oh my!). But what about the creatures that seem to be more science fiction than reality? This article is devoted to such a creature. Picture a creature with:

Allow me to introduce you to the very real and fascinating Ariolimax columbianus or Pacific Banana slug!

Before you wrinkle your nose and think only of slimy garden pests, consider a few of their fascinating attributes:

1. Slime is good! Slugs are hygroscopic. The 2 types of slime they produce have specific functions. The thicker slime is a defense mechanism or what I like to call the “Ewww” factor. Not only a repellent to humans like my mother, this toxic slippery slime makes the slug difficult to hold on to and an unpleasant experience to taste. In fact, garter snakes and Pacific giant salamanders are among the few predators immune to the toxic slime. I would not recommend joining those people who fancy licking slugs for the tongue-numbing effect! The thinner slime produced is, interestingly enough, how slugs flirt! Chock full of pheromones, this slime literally paves the way to a genetic exchange. Which brings us to the next slug fun fact:

2. Slugs are hermaphrodites - each have both male and female genetic exchanging equipment. Some species are able to self-fertilize but the Banana Slug may be happy to report they are not among that category. However, slug reproduction is not without its own type of drama! Along with the suggestive slime, slugs are equipped with “love darts” with which they indicate their intentions. Each slug will then extend a male reproductive organ (which can be longer than the slug!) to intertwine with the other’s to transfer genetic material. Each will then slither off to lay their fertilized eggs but not before a rather disturbing battle in which one of the slugs will never again reproduce. Look it up. It’s gross.

3. Banana slugs can grow up to 9 inches and can move at a brisk pace of 3-4 inches per minute. The current known record holder clocks in at a whopping 6 inches per minute! Coastal banana slugs are larger than we have here at Silver Falls are more commonly yellow. Color variations are dictated by diet, light, and moisture. Colors can be yellow, green, gray, reddish brown and can be with or without spots.

Oregon is host to several slug species, including over a dozen exotic or invasive species (i.e. the ones likely found eating your garden vegetables). Our friendly Ariolimax columbianus, however, is one of the most iconic in the Pacific Northwest and has the important task of consuming dead and decaying matter, animal feces, and fungus and turning it into the rich soil that sustains our forests.

Decomposers for the win!

For further information, check out these resources:

“Slugs and Snails in Oregon”. Joshua Vlach. Oregon Department of Agriculture. August 2016

“Slugs”. Oregon State University.

Silver Creek Falls? or Silver Falls State Park?

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

June Drake (see note below) had concerns that the word “creek” did not evoke the image of the majestic waterfalls found at Silver Falls. His suggestion to drop that term was echoed by Sam Boardman and the official name then became Silver Falls State Park.

However, old habits die hard. Families from the surrounding area had been recreating at this picturesque spot for decades. These families and those of the homesteaders who had lived at Silver Falls City (now the parking lot at the South Falls Day Use Area) were largely unaware and unconcerned with these administrative changes to their backyard treasure. Though completely done subconsciously, visitors young and old who refer to Silver Creek Falls immediately mark themselves as having deep roots in the Silver Falls area.

Interestingly, the newcomers at the turn of the last century in turn encountered a similar situation. The then-locals referred to this area as Argenta, with neighboring area nicknames of Buzzards Roost and Snag Country - names that offer a clear picture of the fire-ravaged landscape after the devastating Silverton Fire of 1865.

Whatever the name, those of us privileged to experience this magical place are fortunate indeed!

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NOTE: June Drake was a local photographer who was the primary advocate in the early 1900’s to preserve and protect the waterfalls and canyon of what is now within Silver Falls State Park. He tenaciously petitioned the National Park System to adopt this space under the protection of a National Park before the ravages of fire and unchecked human impact caused irrevocable damage. Though the NPS rejected the proposals twice, Sam Boardman took up the cause and the area was designated a State Park. Hand painted photographs from the Drake Collection of the ten falls are on display in the South Falls Lodge.

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And for those like me who enjoy a little fun and games:

Civilian Conservation Corp at Silver Falls: A Perspective in History

By Kim Maley, Park Interpreter

Eighty seven years ago, Silver Falls was dedicated as a State Park. At the time of this dedication, the park looked very different than what we enjoy today. Contrary to what many people assume, this space has been not only utilized as a popular recreation destination for decades, there was a city of 200-300 population from the 1880’s until the 1930’s. A fascinating history indeed! The transition, therefore, from the homestead era to the public lands era required a lot of hard work! Who better to task with this monumental task than the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC) - an ingenuous program designed by Franklin Roosevelt as a solution to the Depression-era unemployment problem.

June 1, 1935 marks the start of CCC Company 611 at Silver Creek Falls. Over the next 7 years the boys of the CCC would build trails, buildings, bridges, walls and picnic shelters. Below is an excerpt from an interview with a gentleman who was a stonemason hired to help build Silver Falls and some of the buildings you see today. This and other recollections gathered from an oral history project can be found in Andy Nelson’s book “We Were There”, sold at the Silver Falls Nature Store:

Small, But Feisty: Beware the Rufous Hummingbird

By Kim Maley, Park Interpreter, Friends of Silver Falls

Have you ever been enjoying a serene day at the park - watching fluffy clouds drift by, trees swaying in a gentle breeze, bird song on the wind - and suddenly you hear what sounds like a monster sized angry bee and see flashes of red buzzing dangerously close past your head?? If so, there is likely a hummingbird nest nearby. Though tiny, the Rufous Hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is seemingly unaware of his size when defending his territory! Cornell University’s, All About Birds deems them “the feistiest hummingbird in North America”. They relentlessly attack when defending their territory.

Hummers’ nests are flexible and expand as the chicks grow. Photo credit: Andy Nelson

The Rufous gets its name from its rufous color, a reddish-brown, especially prominent on males. As is the common story in the avian world, the boys get all the pretty things and the females are relatively plain. Male Rufous Hummingbirds sport a flashy red throat scarf whereas the females, having a greater need to go unnoticed by predators and protect the next generation, lack the bright plumage of the males. Ever the show-off, the male will attempt to impress a perched female with an impressive pendulum-like flight.

The Rufous has a heartbeat of 1,260 per minute and beats its wings on average 60 times per second! For perspective, how many times can you clap your hands per second? You would think these tiny little balls of energy would need to eat continuously to keep up but ecologists have observed brief foraging bouts (less than a minute) peppered between significant periods of “doing nothing”. Further experimentation revealed that these periods of rest were in fact the time needed to empty their crops (make more room in their digestive systems). Over-eating for a hummer costs energy with no return benefit (a lesson for us all, maybe?!)

The Rufous Hummingbird is the most common hummer at Silver Falls State Park. There have been a few reported sightings of the Anna’s Hummingbird (Calypte anna) but most birders familiar with the park report only Rufous. On your visit to Silver Falls keep an eye out for these bold tiny birds!

Sources and for further information: The Birders Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds; The Sibley Field Guide to Birds of Western North America; Birds of the Willamette Valley Region

"Just 5 More Minutes, Mom": An Article About Hibernation

by Kim Maley, Park Interpreter , Friends of Silver Falls State Park

Nature is amazing! Every living thing on earth has basic needs in order to be successful in this survival game. Everything needs energy (food), habitat, and to somehow secure the next generation. Overcoming obstacles to achieve this is one of Nature’s best skills! One of the clever adaptations developed to address seasonal food scarcity, for example, is to simply sleep through the lean months!

Silver Falls is home to several of these nature nappers. A few fun tidbits about two of my favorites:

BATS:

Little Brown Bat

Myotis lucifigus

All bats in North America have a strict insect-only diet. Not a single blood-sucker in the bunch! (Those cute little vampire bats live only in South America and only drink a tablespoon or so a day anyway and with zero supernatural side effects) Our bats, on the other hand, have nothing to eat during the winter; so they sleep! The females hibernate together in a “hibernacula” leaving the males to fend for themselves in small groups or independently.

Now wait. Gestation for Little Brown Bats (Myotis lucifigus) is 50-60 days. A 6-month gender segregation seems problematic from a reproductive perspective. But bats have an even more impressive adaptation in that they have delayed fertilization. They may say good-bye to the males in the Fall, but the females carry the males’ sperm with them as they enter the hibernacula. Atmospheric conditions trigger the fertilization of the egg to ensure the birth of the pups coincide with the emergence of the food source! Amazing!

Formica obscuripes

THATCHING ANTS:

You may have noticed piles of fir needles peppered throughout the forest and at the base of many of the Douglas-fir trees. These are not an abandoned attempt to rake up the forest floor debris but rather are ant colonies! Millions of them! And because they are not equipped to function in cold weather, they are adapted to reduce their body temperature, snuggle up with their favorite 100,000 or so mound-mates, and count sheep until Spring - or in their case, count aphids.

Did-You-Know…

• Thatching Ants, also known as Formica Ants, are ranchers? They will keep (or herd) aphids and induce them to produce honeydew as a food source for the colony!

• There are hundreds of species of Formica Ants. Some of the more aggressive species have a rather ingenious yet brutal method of taking over colonies of more peaceful natured Formica species. They will send an impregnated queen in the host colony. The hosts may succeed in ousting the queen but will raise the larvae as their own. These larvae, when adults, will then betray said foster parents and kick them out, thus ensuring the colony as their own.

• Thatching Ant colonies are polydomous - meaning a colony can consist of several satellite nests. Perhaps the largest known is a supercolony found in the Blue Mountains in Oregon that covers close to 10 acres and includes 210active nests with a population of over 56 million!

As you enjoy Silver Falls and all the beauty it offers, keep an eye out for hibernators emerging in the Spring. Along with bats and ants, Silver Falls is home to other hibernators such as Black Bears, snakes, and ladybugs.

Is a Hairy Woodpecker Actually Hairy?

by Andy Nelson, revised from an article in the spring 2013 issue of the Silver Falls Newsletter

WOODPECKERS belong to the family of birds called Picidae, which, in addition to woodpeckers, includes sapsuckers and flickers. Judging from its name, the hairy woodpecker has the distinguishing characteristic of hair someplace on its body. In the picture it’s hard to see, but the white back stripe consists of fine feathers with a hairy appearance.

Photo credit: Terry Sohl; Creative Commons

Hairy woodpeckers are mainly white and black. Males have a red patch sitting on the back of the heard just where the top starts curving downward.

This bird shares its geographic range with its near twin, the downy woodpecker. The hairy woodpecker is much larger, but it can be difficult to tell them apart without an object of known size nearby for comparison.

Three-quarters of the hairy woodpecker’s diet is made up of insects such as ants, bees, wasps, and larvae of invasive beetles burrowed in the bark and wood of trees. They also favor fruits, nuts, and spiders. Their long, straight, chisel-tipped bills are built for the tough job of incessantly hammering away at bark and wood to get at tree insects. They use the same tool for excavating tree trunks to make their nests. Once finished, a nest will have an entrance about two inches top to bottom and an inch and a half wide. This entrance opens into a chamber up to a foot deep.

Populations of hairy woodpeckers are generally healthy. However, fragmentation of large forest tracts into disconnected parcels and European starlings taking over nesting holes pose long range threats.

Owls: Who Does Not Love Them?

by Park Ranger Matt Palmquist, Silver Falls State Park.

THE WISE, NIGHT-DWELLING, inquisitive raptors with human-like expressions – there’s something for everyone to love. These unique birds are incredibly well adapted for their lifestyle, and there are nine species that can be found at Silver Falls State Park.

What defines an owl? Owls are nocturnal birds of prey, all of which are found within two families: most within Strigidae (true owls), with a few others within Tytonidae (barn owls). They all share common characteristics, the most salient being that they hunt mainly at night. They are the nocturnal counterpart to many other raptors that we are accustomed to seeing, such as eagles, hawks, and falcons.

One cannot discuss owls without bringing up their adaptations – that is, the traits that allow them to hunt at night.  Firstly – their amazing eyesight. We’ve all heard the expression “eagle eyes,” and eagles deserve this great distinction. Owls, though, also have superb eyesight, but theirs is specialized for seeing in the dark. Their color vision is poor, but that is made up for by their ability to see in the dark. Their eyes contain far more rods (for seeing in low light) than cones (for seeing colors); humans are the opposite, which is why we can see colors well but have poor night vision. In addition, owls are far-sighted, allowing them to see their prey from a great distance. Owl eyes, as powerful as they are, are unable to move like human eyes. They are cylindrically shaped and fixed within their sockets. In order to move their eyes, they have to move their whole head. Contrary to popular belief, owls cannot turn their head in a full circle, but can still turn it an impressive 270°. Their neck contains 14 vertebrae – compared to 7 in humans – that allows them to do this.

While owls’ eyesight is very impressive, their hearing is even more so. Their ears are located toward the front of their head, and they have a facial disk of feathers that funnels sound into their ears – like a built in satellite dish. Moreover, their ears are placed asymmetrically on their head; one is higher than the other and by bobbing and turning their head, they can pinpoint sounds and locate prey. Owls’ hearing is so keen that they can even hunt blindfolded, using only their ears.

Another of the owl’s adaptations is the ability to fly silently. They have large wings that allow them to soar without flapping too much, and the leading edge of their flight feathers is fringed like a comb, which breaks up turbulence and allows them to fly almost without a sound. This gives them the ability to hunt by stealth, ensuring that their prey – ranging from small songbirds for the pygmy owl to skunks for the great horned owl – will not hear them coming.

Silver Falls’ owls range greatly in size and character from the tiny northern pygmy owl (imagine a tennis ball with wings) to the great gray owl, which can stand over two feet tall. The owls are rarely seen, but if you listen at the right time you can hear their calls. The high pitched “toot-toot-toot” of the pygmy owl can be heard most mornings in the South Falls day-use area, while at night you may hear the comical “who cooks for you? Who cooks for you-all?” of the barred owl. If you’re really curious, try coming to one of our Owl Prowls, held each year in the early spring, during which we try calling for various owls, usually with great success. It’s a memory that will last a lifetime!

Photo credit: Kathy and Sam; Wikimedia; Creative Commons